Country Profiles
 
 

Population: 
1,000,848,550 (July 1999 estimate) 

Land Space:
2,973,190 km2

Coastal Area:
7,000 km 
 
(CIA World Factbook 1999)   
 
 

 
 
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 


 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

India


India flag 

 

Country Contact:

Dr. B.R. Subramanian
Department of Ocean Development
Government of India
Blocks 9 and 12, CGO Complex
Lodi Road, New Delhi - 110 003
India
Fax: +91442301846
Email: brs@alpha.nic.in
http://www.nic.in:80/dod/
 


(CIA World Factbook 1999) 
 
 

India has a coastline of 7,516 km.  It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 2.02 million km2.  Out of its 1 billion  population, nearly 20% live in the coastal areas.  Many highly populated and industrialised cities like Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Cochin, Visakhapatnam are located along/near the coastal areas.  There are 11 major ports and a number of minor ports handling shipping to various degrees of intensity.  The coastline of the mainland belongs to nine States and two Union Territories.  The coastline of the islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep (Laccadives) group of islands constitute nearly 2,000 km. 

The details on various coastal ecosystems, environmental problems due to prevalence of various activities and management needed are given below:
 

1. COASTAL ECO-SYSTEMS

Coastal wetlands

     Along the Indian coastline, the brackishwater areas including marshes, backwaters, mangroves, inter- and sub-tidal measure about 14,16,300 hectares.  These areas act as feeding and nursery grounds for a variety of commercially important fish, prawn and crabs, media for inland transportation, fishing etc.

Mangroves

     Along the Indian coast mangroves are found along the islands, major deltas, estuaries and backwaters of the east coast of India. They also exist along the oceanic island groups of the Andaman and Nicobar. The total mangrove area is estimated to be 6,81,976 hectares.   While the mangroves along the west coast of India are dense, they are scattered and comparatively small in area along the West coast. Gangetic Sunderbans (418,888 ha), Andaman-Nicobar Islands (115,000 ha), Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari deltas and Mahanadi delta are some of the best mangrove formations of India. 

      There are about 45 mangrove species along the Indian coast. The dominant genera are Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Sonneratia, Canocarpus, Heretiera, Xylocarpus, Ceriops, and Exoecaria.

      Mangrove forests mainly function as spawning, breeding and nursery grounds for nearshore estuarine organisms like fishes, crabs, prawns, molluscs, etc. Some of the common and economically important species are Mugil cephalus, Hilsa ilisha, Lates calcarifer, Scylla serata, Meretrix casta, Crassostrea grephoides, and Penaeus spp.

      Apart from the captive and culture fisheries, mangroves are also important as "coastal stabilizers" and "shelter belt areas". These formations protect the coasts and the landward areas from erosion and cyclonic destructions to some extent. Apart from these the mangrove forests of India have importance from a wildlife, recreation and education point of view. "Project Tiger" of Sunderbans and "Crocodile Sanctuary" in the Mahanadi delta are examples of such activities.

Coral reefs

      Around India, coral reef formations are found in the Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch, Central West coast of India, Lakshadweep atolls, and Andaman-Nicobar Islands. Both the coral atoll and the fringing coral reefs are of utmost significance in Indian waters. A few species of corals have recently been reported from the Malvan (Maharashtra) coast. Some 32 genera from Minicoy Islands, 34 genera from Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar, 25 genera from Andaman Islands, 9 genera from Lakshadweep and 3 genera from Nicobar Islands have also been reported. A total of 342 species belonging to 76 genera from the seas around India have been described.

     Primary productivity studies of coral reefs in Indian waters indicated comparable rates with other reefs and marine ecosystems. Often the large benthic algal communities and extensive seagrass beds are equally important as the energy released from them is transferred to higher trophic levels by way of the detrital food chain.

Marine national parks and marine sanctuaries:

 On account of their high bio-diversity, the Gulf of Mannar and Wandoor (Andaman) have been declared as Marine National Parks and Malvan coast (Maharashtra), Gulf of Kutch, Jamnagar as Marine Sanctuaries. There are a number of other specialised ecosystems which exhibit a large variety of marine life and they include Chilka and Pulicat Lakes, Point Calimere, etc.
 

2. ACTIVITIES IN MARINE AREAS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 

2.1 Land-based activities causing pollution

2.1.a    Disposal of domestic sewage

      Demographic pressure in the urban cities and towns has resulted in the production of enormous amounts of domestic waste materials.  These materials reach the marine environment either directly or indirectly through rivers, creeks, bays, etc.  The domestic sewage contributes to the largest amount of waste and it has been estimated that approximately 18,240 million liters per day (MLD) (as of 1994) reach the coastal environment of the country.  These wastes predominantly contain degradable organic matter which utilises enormous amount of oxygen from seawater for its oxidation. The low oxygenated seawater leads to decrease of population of flora and fauna.

     Domestic wastes are discharged mostly in untreated condition due to the lack of treatment facilities in most of the cities and towns.  It has been reported that only primary treatment facilities are available in cities and towns where the population is more than 100,000 and the capacity of the plants is not adequate for the treatment of the total waste generated in the city. For example, in Bombay, the treatment facilities are available only for 390 MLD as against 1,200 MLD of domestic sewage which is generated. Due to such partial treatment, the chemical characteristics of the wastewater retain almost their original features and cause damage to the environmental water quality. 
 

2.1.b Discharge of Industrial Waste

      India is one of largest industrialised nations in the world.  Major industrial cities and towns of the country such as Surat, Bombay, Cochin, Madras, Visakhapatnam and Calcutta are situated on or near the coastline. The total quantity of wastes discharged by these industries is estimated to be 0.67 x 109 m3 (as of 1994).  While the major industries discharge treated effluents into the sea, numerous small and medium scale industries discharge the untreated effluents into the adjoining wastewater canals, municipal drains, creeks, etc. 
 

2.1.c     Non-point sources of pollution

India being an agricultural country, uses large quantities of fertilizers and pesticides to sustain its agricultural production.  This is essential in order to meet the food requirements of its population.  The run-off from the agricultural fields reaches the rivers.  Since the riverine flow is very much less during the dry period, the chemical elements present in the run-off undergo biogeochemical changes in the riverine environment itself with minimum input into the sea.
 

Status of marine pollution in India

 A nation-wide marine pollution monitoring programme operating for the last 10 years has identified areas of clean sea, low levels of pollution and areas of concern.  It has been found that the sea beyond 2 km all along the coast except in Bombay is clean.  In case of Bombay, the sea beyond 5 km is clean. The inland port/creek waters of Veraval (Gujarat) and  Bombay were identified as areas of concern. 
 

2.2 Other activities causing environmental problems

2.2.a Developmental activities like construction of ports and breakwaters

The coastal engineering studies have revealed that the construction of breakwaters alter the sediment transport mechanism in the coastal areas, thereby causing erosion and accretion, depending on the direction of the littoral drift.  Such impacts have already been noticed due to construction of port of Madras (Chennai), Paradip, etc.  It has been found that due to the establishment of Madras port, an accretion of 75 acres occurred in the last 60 years south of the port as well as severe erosion in the north resulting in the loss of 83 acres of land.

Serious coastal erosion problems are also experienced in the western part of India due to intense monsoonal activity. In the state of Karnataka, nearly 0.2 metric ton of sand material is lost per year due to monsoons and resultant sand drift. The cyclonic weather which is common along the East coast (175 cyclones in the last 100 years along the east coast; only 31 in the west coast during the same period) also causes severe erosion problems reported in north of between Point Calimere and Visakhapatnam. The navigational channel from Bay of Bengal to the Hooghly estuary (Calcutta and Haldia are two inland Major ports in India) is causing severe erosion problems in Saugar and Niachara islands. 

The State of Kerala has been experiencing a coastal erosion problem in a severe manner. Besides the causes mentioned above for coastal erosion, the additional factors that are also responsible for causing coastal erosion in this State are:

(a) Mud-bank formation along the coasts influencing the shore processes and disturbing the equilibrium conditions of the coast adjoining them, thereby causing erosion problems on the down drift side.

(b) The bank shore level is low in many places causing severe tidal overflow during monsoon seasons.

(c) Lack of supply of littoral materials due to influence of mud banks, littoral barriers like water channels and non-replenishment of sediments from land to the shore as these sediments are trapped in the extensive network of backwaters.

(d) Inappropriately designed and constructed coastal protection structures.

Due to the above factors, out of 590-km length of coastline, nearly 90% are facing the problem of erosion.
 

2.2.b    Accretion

      The littoral drift along the coastal area, caused by reversing monsoonal surface circulation, leads to erosion and accretional problems. The beach sand erosion eroded in the area is deposited either offshore or north or south of that area depending on the direction of the drift. Deposition of sand and sediment by perennial rivers also cause sandpits and small islets. For example, deposition of silt load of 9.4 m3 by the Mahanadi river over the years has led to the formation of Hukitola island. Similarly the Chilka lake, the largest brackishwater lake in Asia, is facing a heavy siltation problem due to sand deposition at its mouth.  Formation of sandbars due to nourishment also leads to poor exchange of tidal water with the adjoining brackishwater ecosystem which is being slowly converted to freshwater ecosystem of adverse dimension.  This has been affecting the marine life and also the nesting of migratory birds which rely on the marine ecosystem for its food. 
 

2.2.c Ship-breaking industries

At present, the activities related to the breaking of ships have been reported from the coasts of Gujarat, Maharashtra and, to a certain extent, off Tamil Nadu.  During the ship-breaking activities, the major components like engine, etc., are removed and offloaded to the shore. The hull and other steel parts are cut into different sizes and transported as scrap. During the operation, the iron particles and the paint containing lead, get into the marine environment while the soluble matter contaminates the surrounding environment.  The iron particles settle in the sediment. Increased concentrations of lead in sea water is lethal to organisms and the iron debris settling in the sediment causes damage to the benthic organisms particularly the filter feeders like clams, mussels, etc. 
 

2.3 Sea-based activities causing environmental disturbances and pollution

Oil pollution is one of the major sources of pollution from the sea-based activities.  India imports nearly 30 metric tons of petroleum products every year through its major ports located at Kandla, Bombay, Cochin, Madras and Calcutta. India also produces oil through its inshore and offshore oil fields.  The details of tanker terminals, oil depots, refineries as well as offshore oil fields in India are given below:
 
 

Port/Area

Function

Gulf of Kutch 

Ship to ship transfer

Port Kandla 

Single point Mooring Buoy

Vadinar

Single point Mooring Buoy

Bombay High

Offshore oil field

Bombay (Offshore) 

Ship to ship transfer

Bassein 

Offshore oil field

Ratna/Heera 

Offshore oil field

Butcher Island

Marine Terminal

Bombay

Refinery/Depot

Marmagoa

Marine Terminal

Mangalore 

Marine Terminal

Cochin

Marine Terminal

Tuticorin 

Marine Terminal

Cauveri

Offshore oil field

Madras  (Offshore)

 Ship to ship transfer

Madras

Marine Terminal

Vishakhapatnam

Marine Terminal

Vishakhapatnam 

Offshore oil berth ìVIZAGî

Krishna

Offshore oil field

Godavari 

Offshore oil field

Mahanadi

Offshore oil field

Haldia

Marine Terminal
Refinery / Depot

Calcutta

Marine Terminal

Oil production in offshore platforms and handling in Ports

The total quantity of oil produced from the offshore wells of ONGC along the Western coast of India is approximately 30 million tons per day. This oil is transported mainly through the pipelines and the oil tankers. Additionally, approximately 30 million tons of crude oil imported from foreign countries is being handled at major ports and the total quantity of petroleum products handled in major ports is about 50 million tons per year at present and is likely to increase in future. This crude oil is carried by tankers and ships which number more than 1,600 per year. The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) also operates more than 24 crude carriers which carry imported oil to the major ports of the country. 

The western part of the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone, i.e. Arabian Sea adjoining peninsular India, forms the main international tanker route for oil tankers originating from the Persian Gulf. It has been estimated that some 330 million tons of crude oil is transported annually along this route, involving approximately 2,500 laden tankers. The preferred route is through the 9o channel between the Maldives and Lakshadweep Islands, during the Southwest monsoon (May to September), and north of Lakshadweep following the 200-m depth curve west of Mangalore, at other times. Considering the large volume of oil transported and high rate of tanker movement the probability of tanker accident is high - once every few years. The last major accident in the area occurred in January 1993 when two tons of oil spilled in the Nicobar Sea.

Radioactive and thermal wastes

      Although power generation is mostly thermal in India, nuclear power is also being generated. So far no serious harm has been reported from these sources, but fly ash from thermal power plants invariably creates environmental problems.

      Radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants are normally disposed of according to strict international conventions. However, their heat generation poses several problems. Nuclear power plants normally release 50% of their generated heat to the coastal marine environment. Localised damage to ambient flora and fauna appears to be unavoidable. 
 

3.  COASTAL LAWS
 

The national laws governing coastal zone related issues are as follows:

a. Merchant Shipping Act, 1954
 

  • Deals with prevention and control of pollution arising from ships and offshore oil platform


b. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
 

  • Deals with protection and conservation of marine life and establishment of marine parks, sanctuaries etc.


c. Water Act, 1974
 

  • Deals with control of marine pollution and land based sources.


d. Maritime Zone Act, 1974
 

  • Defines various maritime zones like territorial waters, Exclusive Economic Zone and the continental shelf.


e. Environment Protection Act, 1986
 

  • An umbrella Act containing provisions for all environment related issues.

 


4. ACTIVITIES RELATING TO INTEGRATED COASTAL AREA MANAGEMENT

 The Government of India, in 1991, issued a major notification under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, framing rules for regulation of various coastal zone activities. These rules are called the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules. Under these Rules, the entire coastal stretch from the lowest low tide to highest high tide line and the coastal land within 500 m from the high tide line on the landward side is termed as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).  The latter is classified into four categories, namely:

Category-I (CRZ-I):

Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important, such as national parks/marine parks, sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats, mangroves, corals/coral reefs, areas close to breeding and spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural beauty/historically/heritage areas, areas rich in genetic diversity, areas likely to be inundated due to rise in sea level as a consequence of global warming and such other areas as may be declared by the Central Government or the concerned authorities at the State/Union Territory level from time to time.

Category-II (CRZ-II):

The areas that have already been developed up to or close to the shoreline.  For this purpose, "developed area" is referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which is already substantially built up and which has been provided with drainage and approach roads and other infrastructural facilities, such as water supply and sewage mains.

Category-III (CRZ-III):

Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category-I or II.  These will include coastal zone in the rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and also areas within Municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which are not substantially built up.

Category-IV (CRZ-IV):

Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and small islands, except those designated as CRZ-I, CRZ-II or CRZ- III.

Prohibited and regulated activities have been listed for each zone.  The 9 coastal states and 5 Union Territories (including the Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep group of islands) have prepared Coastal Zone Management Plans which delineates the areas included under the above categories.
 

4.1 Capacity Building in the ICM areas

The Government of India in the Department of Ocean Development (DOD) is undertaking capacity building and infrastructural development activities.  These aim at the development of expertise in ICM oriented activities, and dissemination of knowledge gained to the users like coastal states through organised training programmes. Towards accomplishing these objectives, the following priority activities are being undertaken:

1. Determination of designated use of coastal waters.

2. Development of GIS based information system for critical habitats like mangroves, coral reefs, turtle breeding grounds, etc. containing all information necessary to prepare management plans.

3. Determination of waste load allocation based on waste assimilation characteristics of Tapi estuary (Gujarat), Ennore creek (Chennai), and Cochin/Hooghly/Vizag harbour.

4. Development of EIA guidelines for major coastal developmental and other  activities like development of ports, harbours, waste disposal from domestic  and industrial sources, tourist beaches. etc.

5. Development of model ICM plans for Chennai, Goa and Gulf of Kutch.
 

 Out of the five priority activities proposed above, assistance from the World Bank in the form of International Development Association (IDA) credit has been obtained for projects 2 to 5, under the project Coastal and Marine Area Management through an umbrella project on ìEnvironment Management Capacity Buildingî which is coordinated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF).  The DOD has established a unit namely Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) Project Directorate in Chennai (Madras) to implement the above activities.  The Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University and the National Institution of Ocean Technology, Chennai will work as partners with the Project Directorate in implementing the proposed activities. In addition to the Coastal State Governments, a number of National and State Institutions and Consultants are also involved in the implementation of the activities.
 

5. EXPECTED BENEFITS FROM ICM

The implementation of ICM is expected to yield the following benefits:

1. Knowledge and expertise in the country for the development of ICMAM plans and infrastructural facilities for training in this area for all future requirements.  This will help India to develop and implement the plans with local efforts. Once the plans are implemented it is expected that there will be a systematic management of the coastal and marine environment leading to preservation, conservation and sustainable development of its resources on which the coastal population depends for their livelihood.

2. Minimize conflicts arising from the incompatible uses of coastal land areas and adjoining sea area through an established coordination mechanism as defined in the plans.

3. Protection of critical habitats leading to conservation of marine bio-diversity and protection of endangered species which facilitate maintenance of ecological balance to ensure a healthy coastal environment.

4. Systematic management of marine environment from pollution by using waste load limits.  This will facilitate sustainable development of estuaries and coastal waters and minimise their degradation.

5. The proposed environmental guidelines for developmental activities would ensure minimized adverse impact of activities on the ecology of the marine environment. 
 

National facility for ICMAM

 Since the ICMAM related activities are long term in nature, DOD is establishing a National facility on ICMAM in the new National Institute of Ocean Technology campus to undertake the above activities on a long-term basis. Besides regular long-term training programmes on preparation of ICMAM plans and an information system needed for the management of critical habitats, it will also undertake all other ICMAM related activities like determination of use classification of coastal waters and water quality criteria for different uses of sea, determination of ìno impact zone for developmental activities in critical habitatsî, etc.  DOD also envisions ICMAM to become a regional training centre on for South Asian countries and implement international coastal zone programmes.
 

Profile prepared by Dr. B.R. Subramanian, Indian Department of Ocean Development.
 

The following information was provided by the Government of India to the fifth and seventh sessions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (Last update: February 1999). Source:  The United Nations System-Wide Web Site on National Implementation of the Rio Commitments (http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/india/index.htm)
 

OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS

Integrated Decision-Making

In India, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was signed in 1995 and ratified in June 1996. India has also ratified the nternational Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL Convention 73/78) and adopted the provisions in the Merchant Shipping Act. Fisheries are regulated under the Marine Fishing Regulation Act (MFRA). 

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi and Department of Ocean Development are responsible for decision-making in the area of oceans and seas. A national and 13 State/U.T. level coastal management Authorities have been set up to identify and prepare an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan for ecologically important stretches. 

The Notification on Coastal Regulation Zone 1991 (as amended from time to time) lists certain prohibited and regulated activities related to integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development. Its provisions also prohibit and regulate developmental activities in the Coastal Regulation Zone. The effluents/discharges from various resources have to meet the standards listed in the EP (Act) 1986 before being discharged in the marine waters.

The management of resources in high seas is with Department of Ocean Development, while management of resources in the Coastal Water lies with Ministry of Environment and Forests.

With regard to the management of Marine Environment and Biodiversity as well as for their monitoring, major activities relate to the monitoring of the health of India's coastal waters and to capacity building and infrastructure development to facilitate adoption of the concept of Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM). 

The Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction Systems (COMAPS) is a programme being carried by the Department of Ocean Development since 1990-91 with the objective of constantly assessing the health of Indian seas on a long-term basis. The status of marine pollution in the coastal waters has been assessed and current level of pollution int he waters has also been determined. 

Further, it is planned to include physical oceanographic studies and incorporate the techniques for determination of waste assimilation capacity of water bodies to have predictive capabilities on pollution levels, which will enable establishing site specific regulatory measures to maintain the desired quality of the coastal waters.

In 1998, the Department took up an infrastructure development and capacity building programme to facilitate adoption of the concept of Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) by coastal areas in the coming years. The programme focuses on development of expertise in ICMAM oriented activities and dissemination of knowledge gained to the coastal areas through organized training programmes. Towards accomplishing
these activities, the following priority activities are being undertaken: Capacity Building and Infrastructure.

Assessment of Marine Living Resources: Over the years the Fisheries Survey of India has assessed the fishing resources up to 50-70 m. depth and published the fishery atlas. It is also noted that the fishery resources in Indiaís coastal waters up to 50-70 m. depth is almost fully exploited. Some of the species are over-exploited and are endangered. In addition, the marine pollution has led to degradation of the marine resource potential and marine biodiversity. Indian R&D institutions have carried out studies on fish biology and technologies for culture fisheries, controlled harvesting, etc. to aid sustainable resource utilisation. The Department of Ocean Development has initiated a multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional programme aimed at making an assessment of the marine living resources beyond 70 m. depth within the Indian EEZ and correlating the marine living resources potential with the oceanographic parameters in 1997-98. The major objectives of this programme are to have a realistic and reliable information on the potential of marine living resources in the Indian EEZ for sustainable development and management and to enhance the marine living resource potential of Indian seas.

In addition, it is planned to develop technologies and implement pilot projects to increase the productivity of Indiaís coastal waters selectively by sea ranching and mariculture and thereby augmenting the sea food production and improving the life of our coastal community.

To address the preservation and sustainable use of fragile ecosystems, State/Union Territory level Waste Zone Management Authorities have been set up, and these will prepare an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan for ecologically important zones.

To address integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, the following legislation has been adopted: 
 

  • Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986, under which Coastal Regulation Zone 1991 has been notified. 
  • Forest Conservation Act, 1980. 
  • Standards for discharging effluents are listed in the Environmental Protection Act 1986. 


In the area of fisheries development, the following are the legislation/rules/acts in force in the country: 

The Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act, 1981 provides fishing regulations for foreign fishing vessels for operation in Indian waters. The Coast Guard and the State/UT Police has been authorised under the Act to apprehend and prosecute unauthorized foreign fishing vessels/crew for fishing/poaching in Indian waters. 

The Marine Fishing Regulation Acts enforced by the coastal States of India provide for regulating fishing and conservation measures in the territorial waters. These include: regulation of mesh size to avoid catching of juvenile fish, regulation of gear to avoid over-exploitation of certain species, reservation of zones for various fishing sectors to provide exclusive rights to traditional fishermen to fish unhindered in near shore areas and also for declaration of closed seasons during fish breeding period to avoid catching of young juvenile fish. 

A committee was constituted by the Government of India in March, 1995 to review the Deep Sea Fishing Policy. On the basis of the recommendations of this Committee, the Deep Sea Fishing Policy of 1991 was rescinded and no new permits, extensions or renewal of the permits under the above policies has been given. The Government has also constituted a National Level Review Committee in 1996 to assess the area-wise requirements of different categories of fishing vessels below 20 m and conservation of fishery resources, etc. A number of measures have also been taken by the government to conserve marine fishery resources and over-exploitation as per the provisions made in the Central/State
Acts/Rules. Measure have also been taken to introduce resource-specific fishing vessels for oceanic fisheries.

In addition, the following Guidelines have been adopted: 
 

  • Guidelines under Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) notification for setting and operating various projects. 
  • Guidelines on Sustainable Aquaculture Development for regulating coastal aquaculture. 


Major Groups are involved through public hearings that have been made mandatory before any project listed in EIA notification is cleared.

Status

Fisheries: Fisheries play an important role in the Indian economy and supports about 6.0 million full time or occasional fishermen. It continues to be a thrust area of India's development programmes due to its vital contributions to employment generation, food security and foreign exchange earnings.

Fish production in India reached a level of about 5.40 million tonnes in 1998 and the country is now sixth largest producer of fish in the world. Out of this, 2.90 million tonnes is from the marine sector. The earnings from export of fish and fishery products crossed US$1.30 billion in 1998.

While fish production form 0-50 m. zone has been harvested to maximum sustainable yield levels, the zone beyond 50-200 m and 200-500 m has been harvested up to about 50% levels. The oceanic resources are harvested up to 10% of the potential.

In the Indian Ocean context, the over-exploitation and destruction of eco-system and habitat is not alarming as in some other parts of the World. The recent review of the state of World fishery resources by FAO has revealed that while the Atlantic Ocean and in different parts of the Pacific Ocean the fishery resources are largely over-exploited, in the Indian Ocean fish production is on the increase with relative stability and healthy state of fish stocks.

Various measures are being undertaken to optimise and rationalise the fishing fleet as well as the fishing effort by area-wise deployment of different categories of fishing vessels, regulation of fishing, gear and mesh size, uniform closed fishing season, development of deep sea fishing including diversified fishing, replenishment of fish stocks by undertaking projects on sea ranching, setting up of artificial reef, etc.

Enhancement of Marine Living Resources: The seas around India, including Island Groups, are endowed with a variety of finfish and shellfish resources. The over-exploitation of these commercially important resources has resulted in significant depletion of their population. The objectives of the work contemplated in the present technology development programme are steps towards conservation of these resources through breeding and sea ranching.

Oil Spills and Shipping: The western part of the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone, i.e., the Arabian Sea adjoining the peninsular India, forms the main international route for oil tankers originating from the Gulf. It has been estimated that some 450 mt. of crude oil is transported annually along this route, involving approximately 2500 laden tankers. Considering the large volume of oil transported and increased ocean traffic, the probability of tanker accidents is high. The last major accident in the area occurred in January 1993 when a few thousand tonnes of oil spilled into the Andaman Sea. Any accidental spillage of oil along the tanker route will cause severe and in some cases irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem.

In addition to offshore oil exploration and production activities, transfer operations of oil at single buoy mooring stations, as well as lightening and bunkering operations in major ports, cause spillage of oil.

Disposal of Domestic and Industrial Waste: It has been estimated that a large quantum of domestic sewage reaches the coastal environment each day. These wastes contain degradable organic matter, which utilizes enormous amounts of oxygen from seawater for its oxidation. The resultant fall in oxygen in seawater leads to a decrease in the population of marine flora and fauna. Domestic wastes in certain coastal areas are discharged without treatment due to lack of such facilities in most cities and towns. 

Capacity-building, education, training and awareness-raising

Ocean Science & Technology Cells (OSTCs): The Department of Ocean Development has been sponsoring research projects in different disciplines in a large number of national laboratories and academic institutions with the guidance of a Research Advisory Committee. Special grants are given to selected academic institutions to build infrastructure. Research Fellowships and Research Associateships are granted for Post-Graduate and Post-Doctoral Research in Marine Science in Universities and national laboratories. With a view to have a coordinated approach to promote specialisation in marine science in different universities, the Department formulated a scheme for establishing Ocean Science and Technology Cells (OSTC) in consultation with the Universities engaged in research in Marine Science. These cells in the academic institutions will grow into Centres of Excellence in due course. So far 8 OSTCs have been established.

The Department of Ocean Development sponsors R&D projects in academic institutions, National laboratories and societies. These projects train and orient the scientists in specific fields in the ocean sector and deploy them in the R&D activities. Some of these scientists associate themselves with the Universities and improve their academic qualifications also. The Department also provides Research Fellowship to do doctoral and post doctoral work to
enhance their potentials, knowledge and expertise. The Department also sponsors short term training programmes in specified areas. The Department has plans to establish adequate infrastructure to train coastal states on the advanced tools and techniques for planning coastal zone management systems.

To create awareness among the wide section of the society, the Department of Ocean Development organises and sponsors seminars, symposia, workshops and conference at Universities, national laboratories, scientific institutions, Government and Non-Government Organisations with national and international participation. In addition, Department brings out quarterly newsletter, technical reports and books.

Constraints

No information available.

Technology

Data Bank and information networking between the coastal states and decision-making body with regard to ecologically important resources, economically
important resources, etc.

Mining for Polymetallic Nodules: Design and development of a remotely operated underwater mining system with collector module, lifting module and instrumentation and Control Systems, was initiated in 1990. In 1996, India reoriented its polymetallic nodules programme to establish the technologies in a phased manner. India is implementing a joint developmental programme on seabed mining technology with the participation of the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Chennai and the University of Siegen, Germany, with the initial efforts to demonstrate shallow bed mining technology in Indian seas up to 500 metres depth. Successful exploration of sulphides, phosphorites, placer deposits and other seabed minerals in the Exclusive Economic Zone of India. Technology development for extractive metallurgy from polymetallic nodules, marine acoustic instrumentation, ocean energy including Ocean Thermal Energy Conservation, etc., is also given appropriate priority.

Information

Oceanographic data are essential for understanding the oceanic processes and undertaking developments relating to ocean sector. The UNCED (1992) emphasizes the need for Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) to collect long term systematic scientific oceanographic data at a national, regional and
global level. The world climate research programme needs effective contributions for oceanographic observations. Thus the need of the hour is reliable oceanographic data and data products of quality which are application oriented and user driven. The application areas are Weather * Climate prediction, Fisheries, Port and Harbour Development, Navigation and Shipping, Environment Pollution Monitoring, Coastal area development and R&D in
oceanography. 

With a view to synergise and generate reliable coastal and ocean data and data products, the various related projects of the Department of Ocean Development were restructured and reoriented in 1997-98 as Ocean Observation and Information Services (OOIS). This programme has four major elements viz., Ocean Observing System using Conventional and Satellite Remote Sensing Observations, Ocean Information Services, networking different ocean observations and marine data centres to serve the user demands, Satellite and Coastal Oceanographic Research utilising the advances in Satellite Remote Sensing Technology, and Ocean Dynamics & Modelling to establish predictive capacity of ocean parameters.

Geographic Information System has been introduced as a means of Decision Supporting System in the management of critical habitats like mangroves, coral reefs, areas rich in biodiversity, etc., under the Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management programme.

For acquiring surface meteorological and upper oceanographic parameters on real-time basis 12 moored data buoys have been deployed along the Indian coastline at selected locations. These buoys are equipped with sensors for accurate measurement of a number of oceanographic parameters. The data are disseminated to the India Meteorological Department for forecast of cyclones, and to other scientific and research institutions, port authorities, National Hydrographic Office, etc., for wider utility and application. The transmission of the data between the buoys and a store station is effected through a two-way communication system of INMARSAT-C satellite. The oceanographic data are also collected through drifting buoys and are transmitted via ARGOS satellite to various user agencies.

A web-site has been set up for dissemination of information pertaining to the policies and programmes of the Government in the field of ocean science and technology. 

Under the Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Programme of the Department waste assimilation capacity and preparation of model Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management plans, etc., have been envisaged. With a view to control marine pollution from land based activities information relating to assimilation capacity of coastal waters, particularly with reference to the thermal waste discharges including fly ash, aquaculture waste and sewage and other industrial wastes. Studies have been initiated on discharge and assimilation of fly ash and other pollutants from industries located along Ennore Creek, North off Chennai. Application of modern tools like computer based modelling for prediction of the impact of the various integrated activities occurring in the coastal areas is also incorporated in the Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Programme.

Constant monitoring of the health of the seas and taking up remedial measures for preventing and controlling pollution from land based activities is another activity, for ensuring sustainable development of the seas around India. The various measures taken up by the Government for regulating the activities along the coastal zone, fishing and fisheries, etc., have a definite role to play in sustainable development and utilisation of the ocean and its resources.

Financing

The programme and activities of the Department of Ocean Development are fully funded by the Government of India, from the National Budget. External assistance is also available for specific programmes such as National Data Buoy Programme and the Capacity Building Component of Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management from NORAD and World Bank, respectively.

Cooperation

In addition to active participation at the UN on ocean matters, India actively participates in Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Antarctic Treaty System, Regional Seas Programme. India also has scientific and technical bilateral cooperation with other nations, e.g., Russia, Germany, Republic of Korea, Argentina, Peru, Italy and others.
 
 
 

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