Total: 103,000 sq km
Land: 100,250 sq km
Coastline: 4,988 km
Population: 272,512 (July 1999 est.)
Source: CIA Worldfact Book (1999)
Iceland
Ministry of Environmental Affairs (in Icelandic)
(Source: CIA World Factbook 1999)
Many thanks to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, the source of the following information. The information was taken from Iceland's submission to the 7th Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (last update: April 1999). For further information on Iceland's social and economic factors, natural resources, and institutional structures see the United Nations System-Wide Web Site on National Implementation of the Rio Commitments National Information for Iceland at:
http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/iceland/index.htm
Integrated Decision-Making
In the area of integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, the National Physical Planning Agency, which falls under the Ministry for the Environment, is responsible for physical planning and environmental impact assessment. The Nature Conservation Agency and the Icelandic Institute of Natural History are responsible for nature conservation and habitat protection.
In the area of marine environmental protection, the Environmental and Food Agency of Iceland (EFAI), which is an agency of the Ministry for the Environment is responsible for marine environmental protection from both land-based and sea-based activities. The EFAI runs an Office of Marine Environmental Protection (EFAI-OMEP) with responsibility for marine pollution control regardless of the source. The Icelandic Coast Guard exerts a policing function and provides a surveillance and communications service on behalf of the EFAI. The Icelandic Maritime Authority (IMA), an Agency of the Ministry of Communication, is responsible for the inspection of ships. The monitoring of radioactive waste is the responsibility of the Icelandic Radiation Protection Institute, an agency of the Ministry of Health.
In the area of the sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources, the Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for the implementation of the Fisheries Management Act and the Treatment of Commercial Marine Stocks Act. These Acts comprise the largest part of the relevant Icelandic legislation on the conservation and sustainable utilisation of marine resources. The tasks of the Ministry are delegated to sub-agencies such as the Directorate of Fisheries and the Marine Research Institute.
The Ministries of Fisheries and Environment have regular meetings to discuss matters of mutual concern in their respective portfolios. The EFAI-OMEP, the Coast Guard and the IMA have monthly coordination meetings. The fact that the population of Iceland is only 275 thousand, reduces the need for formal mechanisms for coordination. The system is rather simple and transparent. Therefore, the dependence of the nation on fisheries tends to lead to improved efficiency and cooperation of those responsible for its management.
"Major groups" are involved in decision-making in the following ways: The responsible ministries consult stakeholders directly. Groups of stakeholders are commonly represented on committees preparing legislations. When bills are being considered by the Parliament, stakeholders are given the opportunity to submit written comments and are invited to meet with the relevant parliamentary committee. Groups and individuals are extensively consulted by the parliamentarians themselves. In a similar way the scientific community, not least those who are in charge of marine research, are in direct contact with those who are affected by their work and therefore have ample opportunities to express their views and comments.
The overall strategy in this area is presented in the National Environmental Strategy (NES) of Iceland "Towards Sustainable Development" adopted by the Government in 1997. The strategy relates directly to integrated coastal management, marine environmental protection and sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.
With respect to integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, the coastal zone is of special importance when considering the conservation and protection of habitat.
With respect to marine environmental protection, the NES calls for increased research and monitoring in the area of marine pollution with special emphasis given to the pathways of organic pollution and heavy metals into the marine food chain. Efforts will be made to reduce further the release of oil and other chemicals from ships in Icelandic waters. The use of paint containing tributyl tin will be banned. The release of organic effluent from fish processing will be reduced.
The national strategy and policy on conservation and
sustainable use of the marine living resources is stated in
the Icelandic legislation and the NES. An individual
transferable quota (ITQ) system has been implemented to meet
the following fundamental points of the policy:
- The utilisation of commercial marine stocks shall encourage their sustainable exploitation and ensure their maximum long term yield for the Icelandic nation.
- Decisions on fishing shall be based on a scientific foundation.
- Fisheries management shall have built-in incentives to discourage waste and to treat the ocean's living resources with respect.
- Scientific rules shall be developed to decide the catch of individual fish stocks, with the aim of ensuring their maximum sustainable yield. In formulating such catch rules, the precautionary principle shall be applied. Such rule for cod the most important stock, and other important stocks or species has already been implemented.
The Marine Research Institute provides annual stock
assessment of the major stocks and suggest Total Allowable
Catch (TAC) for the stocks. The process of determining the
TAC is outlined below in the section on information.
There are no marine ecosystem types which have been identified as particularly fragile in the Icelandic coastal zone. Four types of protected areas have been defined and are managed in a special manner:
1. Protected areas in the coastal waters where trawl
fishing is prohibited.
2. Protected areas that are closed for longer periods. Some
to protect young or small fish, others to protect ecosystems
or certain species.
3. Protected areas closed for shorter periods i.e. during
spawning.
4. Furthermore the MRI (Marine Research Institute) can on
scientific basis close areas for a short period to prevent
harmful consequences of fishing on stocks and
ecosystems.
A marine conservation area has established in the bay of Breidafjordur, West Iceland. This was done by special legislation in 1995. Management objectives are to conserve the many ecological and cultural features, accommodate sustainable use such as fisheries, tourism, algae extraction and other traditional uses. Local communities have been directly involved since the outset and are represented on a multi-stakeholder committee which oversees the conservation programme. The programme has facilitated scientific study, raised awareness of the biological, geological and economic values of the area, heightened interest in the cultural heritage and is stimulating the development of the tourism industry in the area including whale-watching.
Strict regulations on mesh-sizes and selective fishing gear are an important part of how these problems are addressed in Iceland. The MRI conducts extensive research, one to mention specifically in this context is a comprehensive multi-stock management research project aimed at studying interactions in the marine ecosystem spanning the whole range of marine life from algae and plankton to large whales.
Legislation relevant to integrated coastal zone management and sustainable development, includes the following:
Laws:
No. 60, 1992, Institute of
Natural History
No. 63, 1993, Environmental impact
assessment (with later changes).
No. 54, 1995, Breidafjordur
conservation area.
No. 93, 1996, Nature
conservation.
No. 73, 1997, Physical
planning.
Legislation relevant to marine environmental protection includes the following:
Laws:
No. 20, 1972, Ban on dumping of
hazardous chemical in the ocean.
No. 14, 1979, Protection of the
ocean from oil pollution.
No. 32, 1986, Marine pollution
control (with later changes).
No. 35, 1993, Control of
ships.
Regulations have been set on the basis of the above law on pollution from ships, pollution from waste, reaction to pollution accidents, ban on the use of chemicals containing mercury, arsen and organotins, and rules on the transport of hazardous chemicals.
With respect to sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources, the following legislation applies:
Laws:
No. 38, 1990, Fisheries
management Act. (with later changes).
No. 60, 1992, Institute of Natural
History.
No. 93, 1996, Nature
Conservation.
No. 57, 1996, The treatment of
commercial marine stocks.
No. 151, 1996, Fisheries outside
Icelandic fisheries jurisdiction (with later
changes).
No. 79, 1997, Fisheries within the
economic zone.
These are the main laws; furthermore there are relevant laws on the management of certain stocks and on production and quality control, including:
No. 64, May 19 1994, Conservation, protection and utilization of birds and wild mammals excluding marine mammals.
Regulations in accordance with the above-mentioned laws are numerous and fall in eight categories.
1. authorizations to participate in certain
fisheries.
2. protected areas.
3. fishing gear and mesh sizes.
4. treatment of catch.
5. control on landing of catch.
6. control on production.
7. fisheries outside the EEZ. in accordance with ratified
international agreements.
8. fisheries of foreign vessels inside the EEZ.
Code of practice include:
- The Environmental declaration of the Ministry of fisheries 1998.
- Iceland participated in the negotiations of the FAO Code of Conduct of Responsible Fisheries.
Standards:
- The catch rule for cod.
The catch rule was developed at the initiative of the
Ministry of Fisheries. This ministry had also issued an
environmental declaration. Representatives of the industry,
science and economics participated in the working group that
developed the catch-rule. Finally the government endorsed
the rule. IFPC (Iceland's largest exporter of fish) has
established their own environmental principles.
Status
The population of Iceland is 275.000 on an island that is
103.000 km2. The bulk of the population resides close to the
coast.
The largest population center is the greater Reykjavik area
with 61% of the population, the capital city and surrounding
towns, in the southwest. The capital city of Reykjavik has
39.4% of the population. The largest population center
outside the capital area is Akureyri in the north with
around 20.000, the other towns have less than 5000
inhabitants.
The primary economic activity in the coastal areas is fishing. The bulk of the fishing is done by trawlers and other large fishing vessels. The coastal towns have a number of smaller fishing boats with 1-2 fishermen on each boat.
Oil exploration is nonexistent in Iceland and mining is
limited to gravel mining on land and from the ocean bottom
and mining of diatomite sediments. Industrial activity is
mainly power intensive industry consisting of three
factories (aluminium and
ferrosilicon) in two locations.
Tourism is Iceland tends to center on inland areas rather than the coast. Coastal recreation is limited.
The percentage of the economy contributed by fishing and methods in place to encourage sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources.
In 1997 revenues from export of fish accounted for 71.4% of the total Icelandic export of goods. The percentage of export and goods and services is 50%. Percentage of fisheries in the GDP in 1997 was 14.2%.
The impact of shipping:
The impact of shipping on the sustainable management of the coastal zone in Iceland is generally low. There is a substantial risk of major accidents, however. Annually 600-700 thousand tons of oil and gasoline are imported to Iceland. By far the largest quantity of the oil is transported to Iceland in tankers capable of carrying 15,000 to 30,000 tonnes per trip. There are 25 to 30 trips per year, and the largest ships coming to Iceland can carry about 30,000 tonnes. The oil is distributed to harbours outside the capital area on ships carrying about 2,000 tonnes. Other substances considered dangerous when being transported by sea include fish oil and various substances for energy-intensive industry.
Shipments of goods to and from Iceland goes mostly through ports in the capital area and along shipping routes running south of the country. On these routes bad weather and high seas are more common than elsewhere around the country. In addition, there are few harbours on the south coast. This area is important for fishing, fish farming and as spawning grounds for important fish stocks. Sailing off the coast of Iceland can be somewhat difficult because of weather, especially in the winter months. In addition, there are visible and submerged skerries off the coast that further increase the risk of pollution accidents. Frequent mishaps at sea have occurred off Iceland in past years, but most of them have been small. On the other hand, there is a recent example of a large cargo ship's having been stranded as a result of an underestimation of conditions off the south coast.
The primary sources of land-based pollution of the marine environment:
The contribution of the source categories identified in the Global Programme of Action have been quantified. Sewage is the most important source category in Iceland.
The primary sources of sea-based pollution of the marine environment:
There has been a major effort to reduce dumping from the fishing fleet and recently an information booklet was produced by the Environmental and Food Agency to be distributed to the ship operators. Pollution from paint containing tributyltin compounds has resulted in local problems close to harbours in Iceland.
Other relevant issues.
A programme of integrated monitoring and assessment of
marine pollution in Icelandic waters was initiated in 1989
based on the standards set in OSPAR, the Arctic
Environmental Protection Strategy and Icelandic regulations.
The programme covers all
aspects of marine pollution monitoring. The project is
chaired by a board consisting of members of research
institutions in Iceland. Results are reported regularly in a
form accessible to policy makers and stake holders.
A National action plan to meet the obligations of the GPA on land-based sources is being developed. This plan is in the initial stages but will include all stakeholders into the process. It is expected to be ready in the year 1999. The municipalities in Iceland have invested heavily in sewage treatment facilities.
The Marine Research Institute has a central role in the Icelandic administration regarding sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources due to its advisory role to the Ministry of Fisheries. The research it conducts, focuses on marine physics and chemistry, characteristics of the seabed, biological conditions and behaviour of the marine vegetation. The most extensive field of research is however in the field of stock assessment, trials of fishing gear and studies of potentially harvestable species.
The international project Benthic Invertebrates of Icelandic Waters (BIOICE) is run by the Ministry for the Environment and aims at a faunistic-zoogeographical investigation of the benthic invertebrate fauna in Icelandic waters. From 1993 through 1997, cruises were made in all sections of the economic zone around Iceland, between 50 and 3000 m depth. The samples are sorted at the Sandgerdi Marine Centre. This center has now been granted large scale facility status by the European Union which will facilitate access by foreign scientists to the facility. The collections are analysed by an international team of specialists, and later curated at the Icelandic Museum of Natural History, Reykjavik. This project represents a major effort in the study of marine biodiversity.
Capacity-building, education, training and awareness-raising
Several courses have been offered in the area of environmental impact assessment.
In Iceland there is general awareness of the importance
of sustainable development of marine living resources. This
is due to the dependency of the national economy on the
fishing industry. The special effort undertaken in relation
to the International Year of
the Ocean (IYO) was therefore an effort to distribute
information on the sustainability of Icelandic fisheries for
consumers and leaders of public opinion in other countries
and towards children and youth in Iceland. A book of ideas
for teachers on how to inform and instruct better on these
issues was published and a ship was made available for the
schools that wish to instruct young people on site.
During the IYO research organizations and government institutions organized open houses for the public. The public was also invited to visit fishing vessels in harbours. A series of lectures about ocean issues was offered to the general public. This was very popular.
Constraints
In light of the overwhelming dependence of Icelandic
economy on fisheries it is vital for the economy and the
well being of future generations that the management of
fishing stocks has sustainable use and conservation as a
primary goal. Practices of other countries can have a
considerable negative effect in Iceland's effort to promote
sustainable development related to use of living marine
resources, however. The most important of these
are
- State subsidies for fisheries in countries that are our competitors on the world market, and
- Trade barriers, as free trade is an important driving force to attain sustainable use and conservation of the living marine resources.
In the area of the prevention of marine pollution, Iceland
is dependent on actions taken by other nations. This is
particularly evident in the area of persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and nuclear waste. Iceland places great
emphasis on the implementation of the Global Programme of
Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities adopted in Washington in 1995. It is a
cause of some concern in this regard that the UNGA
resolution 51/189 adopted in December 1996 has not been
implemented. This resolution calls for active participation
of all relevant international organisations and agencies in
the implementation of the GPA. This is particularly relevant
for the establishment of a clearing house mechanism for
technologies and practices for the abatement of land-based
pollution.
Technology
Icelandic firms have developed a more efficient and selective fishing gear and machinery for fish processing. The Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories research production methods to make fishing as environmental-friendly as possible.
In 1998 the United Nations University Fisheries Training Programme was established at the Marine Research Institute, in collaboration with other institutions and universities in Iceland. The programme offers a six month post-graduate course annually to practicing professionals from the developing countries. Participants come from countries where fisheries are of considerable national importance and their development is in the direction of internationalisation. The course has a practical orientation and specialisations are offered in several fields, including Fisheries Policy and Planning, Marine and Inland-Waters Resource Assessment and Monitoring and Quality Management of Fish Handling and Processing. The first course started in August 1998 and included 6 participants, all from Africa. The second course will start in June 1999, with 8 participants from Africa, Asia and Latin America.
The selection of techology is made by the industry.
Government agencies and non-governmental organizations
provide operators with advice on the best available
technology. This advice now takes notice of environmental
concerns in addition to
the economical.
Information
With respect to the sustainable management of fishery resources:
The Marine Research Institute provides annual stock assessment of the major stocks and suggest Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the stocks. The process of determining the TAC involves:
1. Data collection: Landings (all commercial species), length measurements (all commercial species), individual weight measurements (most commercial species), age determinations (all commercial species that can be aged directly, such as cod and herring. Also evaluations of length/age modes of important crustaceans, e.g. shrimp and Nephrops), trawl surveys, e.g. most important groundfish, shrimp and scallop, acoustic surveys, e.g. capelin and herring, 0-group surveys, e.g. cod and capelin and catch per unit of effort (CPUE) by fishing gear of all commercial species from fishery log-books.
2. Data analyses: Catch in numbers and weight at age/length by species (from landings, length measurements and age readings), e.g. cod and herring, proportion mature at age, e.g. cod and herring, stock abundance indices (from surveys), e.g. cod, shrimp and scallops and recruitment indices (from 0-group surveys), e.g. cod and capelin.
3. Stock assessments, e.g. virtual population analysis (VPA) or similar analytical assessments and/or acoustic and other survey estimates.
4. Stock predictions.
5. TAC recommendations.
The following aspects of the policy are of relevance here: The legislative body has open access for the general public to all debates and voting on law proposals, both direct, in print or via Internet. All information on quota allocations, vessels and up to date catch figures can be reached directly at the Directory of Fisheries or via the Internet. Information on catch in tons by vessels, fishing trips, and species is readily available form these sources. Landing by species, vessel, and harbour. Production by species, producer and export by markets, value and tons. Further information on productivity in the fishing sector is available i.e. catch pr. fisherman or product pr. worker. The Statistical Bureau of Iceland has information on work force in fishing and production of fish.
With respect to marine pollution:
Comprehensive assessments of the state of the environment of coastal and marine areas have been carried out annually since 1989. In general, the situation has been stable. It is difficult to detect natural variations from anthropogenic impact. Results of the monitoring of the health of the ocean are printed in periodic report in Icelandic and provided to international organisations. This information was for included in the AMAP report on the State of the Arctic Environment.
With respect to mineral resources:
No important mineral resources are found in Icelandic waters.
With respect to living resources other than fish:
There has been a ban on the hunting of whales in Icelandic waters since 1986. There has been a significant reduction in the hunting of seals.
With respect to critical uncertainties:
A panel of experts has been established to assess the potential impact of climate change and sea-level rise on the Icelandic nature, society and economy. Their first task will be to report on the results of the second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as is affects Iceland and the ocean around Iceland. This report will be written in a form accessible to the general public.
To fish or process fish in Iceland a license is needed
from the Directorate of fisheries. It supervises transfer of
quota shares between vessels and imposes penalties for
illegal catches. The Directorate provides supervision on
board fishing vessels and in ports of landing. That involves
inspection of the compositon of catches, fishing equipment
and handling methods. All landings are weighted on
electronic scales that are directly linked to the
Directorate. This information is compared to quota status of
the ship, and should there occur a difference between trips
when surveillors where on, or not on board that is checked
specially.
Processors have to meet specific requirements concerning
hygiene, equipment and quality control to obtain a license.
Approved inspection bodies are responsible for inspection of
hygiene, facilities and in-plant monitoring of production.
The Directorate supervises the operation of these inspection
bodies. The Directorate cooperates with a number of other
government institutions i.e. the Icelandic Coast guard, the
Directorate of Customs and the Association of Local
Authorities.
The EFAI operates a web site on marine environmental protection including information on emergency response in cases of marine pollution. The Icelandic Maritime Authority operates a web site with a wealth of useful information for ship operators including a warning system for dangerous waves important in reducing the risk of pollution accidents.
Agencies involved in fisheries management also operate web sites including the Marine Research Institute and the Directorate of Fisheries.
Information on fish stocks and their utilization is
included in reports on environmental statistics issued by
the Icelandic Bureau of Statistics. An interministerial task
force is working on the development of sustainability
indicators taking note of work in this
area by regional and international agencies.
Financing
The fisheries industry is run by the private sector in Iceland, the financial responsibility is the owners. They do not get any subsidies from the national budget. Most of the larger firms are on the stock-market. The monitoring of marine pollution and the level of the fish stocks is funded from the national budget.
Cooperation
Iceland is a Party to the following Agreements:
- Convention for the International Council for the Exploration of the sea. 12.9.1964
- International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 29.11.1969
- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 2.2.71.
- International Convention on the Establishment of a International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 18.12.1971
- Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, 15.2.1972
- Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Dumping Convention), 29.12.1972
- International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 2.11.1973
- Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources, 4.6.1974
- Convention on Future Multilateral Cooperation in the North West Atlantic Fisheries 24.10.1978
- Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 19.9.79.
- Convention on Future Multilateral Cooperation in North East Atlantic Fisheries. 18.11.1980
- Convention for the Conservation of Salmon in the North Atlantic Ocean 2.3.1982
- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 10.12.1982
- Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 22.03.1989
- International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 30.11.1990
- Convention of Biological Diversity, 5.6.92.
- Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, 22.09.92
- Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10. Dec. 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. 4.8.95
Other related agreements, particularly regional and
sea-specific agreements, to which Iceland is a Party
include:
- Treaty concerning Spitsbergen of 9.2.1920
- Bilateral agreement between Iceland and Norway regarding fishery and the continental shelf 28.5.1980
- Bilateral agreement between Iceland and Norway on the continental shelf between Iceland and Jan Mayen 22.10.81
- Agreement on cooperation in Research, Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals in the North Atlantic 9.4.92
- Agreement between Iceland and EU on fisheries 2.5.92
- Agreement between Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden on co-operation in the prevention of marine pollution from oil and other dangerous chemicals, 29.03.93
- Agreement between Iceland and EU on fisheries and the marine ecosystems 15.12.93
- Agreement between Iceland, and Denmark/Greenland on the continental shelf and the fisheries between Iceland and Greenland. 11.11.97
- Bilateral agreement between Iceland and the Faero Islands on Fisheries 15.1.98
- (Bilateral agreement between Iceland and Greenland on fisheries within their respective economic zones.6.2.98)
- Agreement between Iceland and Norway on access to the Icelandic Economic Zone and the Norwegian Economic
- Zone and the Fishery Zone around Jan Mayen in 1999.18.6.98
- Arctic Council and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy.
Other bilateral, multilateral and international cooperation
in which Iceland participates in order to further activities
related to sustainable development and use of oceans and
coastal areas include:
- Protocol on the Conservation Rational Utilization and Management of Norwegian Spring Spawning Herring (Atlanto-Scandian Herring) in the Northeast Atlantic 6.5.96
- (Agreement between Iceland Denmark/Greenland and Norway on the capelin stock between Iceland, Greenland and Jan Mayen 18.6.98)
- Agreed record of conclusions of Fisheries Consultations on the --Management of the Norwegian Spring-spawning Herring (Atlanto-Scandian Herring)Stock in the Northeast Atlantic for the 1999 EU, Iceland, Norway, Faero Islands and Russia 7.10.98
- Agreement between Iceland and the Faero Islands on the fisheries management of the Norwegian Spring spawning Herring (Atlanto-Scandian Herring) within their EZs.7.10.98
- Arrangement between Iceland and the Russian Federation on access to the Icelandic Economic Zone to fish the Norwegian Spring-spawning Herring.7.10.98)
Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment
Convention
for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic (OSPAR)